Multi-filter chemical speciation sampler and virtual impaction particle separation inlet therefore

ABSTRACT

A multi-filter chemical speciation sampler and a virtual impaction particle separation inlet therefore are provided. The inlet includes a housing having a bottom, a collection tube that extends through the bottom, and collection apertures formed in the bottom, arranged around the collection tube; a first plate disposed on top of the housing, having acceleration nozzles disposed at the perimeter thereof; a second plate disposed in the housing below the first plate, having a central aperture and separation apertures disposed around the central aperture. The sampler includes: an inlet; a virtual impaction separator to further fractionate the PM into a course fraction and a fine fraction; a first separation assembly to divide the course fraction into coarse aliquots, comprising first filters to collect the coarse aliquots; a second separation assembly to divide the fine fraction into fine aliquots, comprising second filters to collect the fine aliquots.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION

This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No.61/136,853, filed Oct. 9, 2008, the disclosure of which is incorporatedherein by reference.

GOVERNMENT INTEREST

This invention was made with Government support from U.S. EnvironmentalProtection Agency (EPA), through its Office of Research and Development.The Government has certain rights in this invention.

BACKGROUND

1. Field

Aspects of the present teachings relate to multi-filter chemicalspeciation samplers to collect particulate matter (PM) fractions fromambient air, and virtual impaction particle separation inlets for thesame.

2. Description of the Related Art

Airborne particulate matter (PM) is one of the major components of airpollution. PM includes microscopic particles in the air that aregenerally classified by size as being coarse PM or fine PM. The fine PMincludes particles having an aerodynamic diameter (AD) of less than 2.5microns (μm), and the coarse PM includes particles having an AD ofbetween 2.5 and 10 μm.

PM can be released directly to the atmosphere from natural andanthropogenic sources, such as, industrial smokestacks, automobiletailpipes, wood burning, road dust, wind blown dust, and biologicalmaterials (spores and pollen), for example. PM can also form in theatmosphere from chemical reactions involving other pollutants, such assulphur dioxide (SO₂), nitrogen oxides (NO_(x)), ammonia (NH₃), andvolatile organic compounds (VOC).

Large particles (>10 μm AD) are generally filtered out by the nose.Middle-size or coarse particles (2.5 μm to 10 μm AD) are deposited inthe upper airways, where they can impact on surfaces in the throat,larynx and upper branches of the lungs. Coarse PM may consist of severalpotentially toxic components, such as resuspended particulate matterfrom paved and unpaved roads, industrial materials, brake linings, tireresidues, trace metals, and bio-aerosols. A considerable portion ofthese particles may be deposited in the upper airways and to a lesserextent into the lower airways, and may be responsible for theexacerbation of asthma and other respiratory disease. Recent data from asmall number of epidemiological studies indicate that, apart from, or inaddition to, the fine PM, health effects may also be closely associatedwith the coarse PM, to an even larger extent than to the fine PM. Invitro studies with human monocytes have shown that cellular toxicity andinflammation may also be associated with the coarse PM and itsbiological components.

In addition, fine PM reaches the alveoli, where it must be dealt with bymacrophages from the immune system. Fine PM can be inhaled deep into thelungs and reach the critical areas where the cells replenish the bloodwith oxygen. They can cause breathing and respiratory symptoms,irritation, inflammation and damage to the lungs. Health studies haveshown significant associations between exposure to fine PM and prematuredeath from heart or lung disease. Fine PM also aggravates heart and lungdiseases and has been linked to effects, such as cardiovascularsymptoms, cardiac arrhythmias, congestive heart failure, heart attacks,respiratory symptoms, asthma attacks, and bronchitis. These effects canresult in increased hospital admissions, emergency room visits, absencesfrom school or work, and restricted activity days. Individuals that maybe particularly sensitive to fine PM exposure include people with heartor lung disease, older adults, and children.

Accordingly, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) haspublished rules setting forth air quality designations andclassifications for fine PM, pursuant to the National Ambient AirQuality Standards (NAAQS). The U.S. EPA has recently considered (2006)rules for coarse PM but at that time the lack of evidence associatingcoarse particles to health effects was lacking. The U.S. EPA will likelyconsider a PMc standard in the next round of NAAQS. To support thiseffort and learn more about PMc and health effects, the U.S. EPA isdeveloping a coarse particle chemical speciation network, where thematerial collected on filters will be analyzed in the laboratory fordifferent chemical components. Despite the growing evidence ofparticulate-related health effects, the paucity of information aboutspecific biological mechanisms, associated with both fine and coarseparticles, remains a critical missing link.

Accordingly, a need exists for size-fractionating PM from ambient air,separating the fractionated PM into coarse and fine fractions, and thenfurther separating the coarse fraction into coarse aliquots collected onseparate filters, which can be separately analyzed.

SUMMARY

Aspects of the present teachings relate to virtual impaction particleseparation inlet comprising: a housing having a bottom, a collectiontube that extends through the bottom, and collection apertures formed inthe bottom, arranged around the collection tube; a first plate disposedon top of the housing, having acceleration nozzles disposed in agenerally circular pattern; a second plate disposed in the housing belowthe first plate, having a central aperture disposed on a first end thecollection tube, and separation apertures disposed around the centralaperture, aligned with corresponding ones of the acceleration nozzles.

According to aspects of the present teachings, when a partial vacuum isapplied to the housing, ambient air including particulate matter (PM)flows through the acceleration nozzles and is divided into a majorstream and a minor stream.

According to aspects of the present teachings, the major stream flowsthrough the central aperture and into the collection tube, and themajority of the PM in the major stream have a smaller aerodynamicdiameter (AD) than that of the majority of the PM in the minor stream.

According to aspects of the present teachings, the second stream flowsthrough the separation apertures and into the collection apertures, andat least about 90% of the fine PM in the particles in the second streamhave an AD of more than about 10 μm. Ten percent of the particles lessthan 10 μm AD, for example, flow with the second air stream into thecollection apertures. In addition, 100% of the coarse particles flowwith the second air stream into the collection apertures.

Aspects of the present teachings relate to multi-filter chemicalspeciation sampler comprising: an inlet to fractionate PM having an ADof less than about 10 μm, for example, from other PM in ambient air,greater than about 10 μm AD, for example; a virtual impaction separatorto further fractionate the fractionated PM entering the sampler, into acourse fraction and a fine fraction; a first separation assembly todivide the course fraction into coarse aliquots, comprising firstfilters to collect each of the coarse aliquots; a second separationassembly to divide the fine fraction into fine aliquots, comprisingsecond filters to collect each of the fine aliquots.

Additional aspects and/or advantages of the present teachings will beset forth in part in the description which follows and, in part, will beobvious from the description, or may be learned by practice of thepresent teachings.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

These and/or other aspects and advantages of the present teachings willbecome apparent and more readily appreciated from the followingdescription of the exemplary embodiments, taken in conjunction with theaccompanying drawings, of which:

FIG. 1 illustrates a side sectional view of a virtual impaction particleseparation inlet, according to aspects of the present teachings;

FIGS. 2A and 2B respectively illustrate a top view and a side-sectionalview of a first plate of the inlet of FIG. 1;

FIGS. 3A and 3B respectively illustrate a top view and a side-sectionalview of a second plate of the inlet of FIG. 1;

FIG. 4 illustrates a multi-filter chemical speciation sampler, accordingto aspects of the present teachings;

FIGS. 5A and 5B respectively side of a body of a drum and a perspectiveview of a bottom plate, of the drum; and

FIG. 6 illustrates a perspective view of a flow splitter.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE EXEMPLARY EMBODIMENTS

Reference will now be made in detail to the exemplary embodiments of thepresent teachings, examples of which are illustrated in the accompanyingdrawings, wherein like reference numerals refer to the like elementsthroughout. The exemplary embodiments are described below, in order toexplain the aspects of the present teachings, by referring to thefigures.

As used herein, “flow rate” refers to a volumetric airflow rate, butmass flow also can be applied. Particulate matter (PM) sizes areexpressed in microns (μm), and refer to particulate aerodynamic diameter(AD), as conventionally used in the art. In addition, as referred toherein, “upstream” and “downstream” refer to an airflow directionthrough a device.

FIG. 1 illustrates a virtual impaction particle separation inlet 10,according to aspects of the present teachings. The inlet 10 may beclassified by its AD cut-point. For example, the AD of particles with50% collection efficiency would be referred to as DP50. The inlet 10fractionates PM by virtual impaction, which eliminates particle bounceand re-entrainment problems that may be associated with real impactionparticle separators. In addition, nearly all ambient PM is allowed toenter the inlet 10, with size fractionation taking place inside theinlet 10. Thus, the fractionation is independent of ambient wind speedand turbulence, obviating the need for isokinetic sampling.

The inlet 10 includes a housing 20, a first plate 30 disposed on anupstream end of the housing 20, and a second plate 40 disposed withinthe housing 20, downstream of the first plate 30. The housing 20includes a collection tube 22 that extends through a central portion ofthe bottom of the housing 20. A plurality of collection apertures 24 areformed in the bottom of the housing 20, which are arranged around thecollection tube 22. For example, from 4 to 16 collection apertures 24may be formed in the bottom of the housing 20.

While not required in all aspects, the inlet 10 includes a precipitationguard 12, to prevent precipitants from entering the housing 20. Theprecipitation guard 12 includes first and second shields 13, 15, whichare spaced apart, so as allow ambient air to flow therebetween and enterthe inlet 10. The precipitation guard 12 also includes debris screens 17disposed between the first and second shields 13, 15. The inlet 10 alsoincludes an optional adapter 14 attached to the downstream end of thecollection tube 22. The adaptor 14 can facilitate the connection of theinlet 10 to, for example, a standard high volume air sampler (notshown). However, it is understood that the precipitation guard 12 asshown, may be replaced by a precipitation guard different of differentgeometry, and the adaptor 14 may be optional and need not be included inall aspects.

FIGS. 2A and 2B respectively illustrate a top view and a side-sectionalview of the first plate 30. The first plate 30 includes an upstreamsurface that faces away from the housing 20, a downstream surface thatfaces towards the housing 20, and a plurality of acceleration nozzles 32that extend between the upstream and downstream surfaces and are evenlyspaced around the center of the plate.

The acceleration nozzles 32 can each include a conical portion 32A and acylindrical portion 32B that extends from the conical portion 32A. Theacceleration nozzles 32 are disposed in an annular arrangement, suchthat the adjacent conical portions 32A contact one another and form anacute angle (knife edge), on the upstream surface of the first plate 30.The walls of the conical portions 32A can be disposed at, for example,an angle of approximately 40 degrees, with respect to the walls of thecylindrical portions 32B. The cylindrical portions 32B are disposed inan annular arrangement on the downstream surface of the first plate 30.There may be a smooth transition between the conical portions 32A andthe cylindrical portions 32B, rather than the shown abrupt transition.In addition, while the first plate 30 is shown as being circular, thefirst plate 30 can have any other suitable shape, such that PM enteringthe inlet 10 from positions equidistant to the collection tube 22.

FIGS. 3A and 3B respectively illustrate a top view and a side-sectionalview of the second plate 40. The second plate 40 includes a centralaperture 44 and separation apertures 42 disposed around the centralaperture, in an annular arrangement. The walls of the central aperture44 are disposed at, for example, an angle of approximately 60 degrees,with respect to an upstream surface of the second plate 40. The edges ofthe separation apertures 42 are also disposed at a similar angle, so asto form sharp edges. The acceleration nozzles 32 and the separationapertures 42 are disposed in an annular arrangement, i.e., are disposedwith radial symmetry around the central collection tube 22. However, thepresent teachings are not so limited, as the acceleration nozzles 32 andthe separation apertures 42 can be disposed in any suitable arrangement,as detailed below. In addition, while the second plate 40 is shown asbeing circular, the second plate 40 can have any other suitable shape.

Referring again to FIG. 1, the second plate 40 is disposed in thehousing 20, such that the central aperture 44 is aligned with anupstream end of the collection tube 22. The second plate 40 is disposeddownstream of the first plate 30, such that each of the separationapertures 42 is aligned with (paired) a corresponding accelerationnozzle 32. In particular, the separation apertures 42 can directly orpartially face the corresponding acceleration nozzles 32. In otherwords, the separation apertures 42 are centrally aligned with thecorresponding acceleration nozzles 32. The inlet 10 can include anynumber of pairs of the separation apertures 42 and acceleration nozzles32. For example, the inlet 10 can include from 2 to 36 pairs of theseparation apertures 42 and acceleration nozzles 32.

When a partial vacuum is applied to the housing 20 (such as through useof a pump), the ambient air is drawn into the housing 10 through theacceleration nozzles 32. As the air is draw through the accelerationnozzles 32, the velocity thereof is increased, thereby increasing theinertia of PM included in the air, in proportion to the mass thereof.The air flow through the acceleration nozzles 32 may be laminar orturbulent.

The air is then split into major and minor streams. The major streamflows through the central aperture 44 and into the collection tube 22.The major stream generally includes from 90-98% of the total air flowinto the inlet 10. The minor stream flows through the separationapertures 42 and into the collection apertures 24. Smaller PM (AD ofless than about 10 μm) is primarily confined to the major air stream,and larger PM (AD of more than about 10 μm) is generally confined to theminor air stream, due to differences in the inertia thereof. In otherwords, the inlet 10 has a DP50 cut point of about 10 μm, as describedherein. However, as discussed below, the Dp50 cut point can be adjusted,by adjusting the design parameters of the inlet 10. For example, theDP50 cut point can be from 1 μm to 10 μm, in some embodiments. Inaddition, all of the larger PM enters the collection apertures 24. Inaddition, a small amount (10% or less) of the smaller PM may also enterthe collection apertures 24. However, substantially none of the largerPM enters the collection tube 22.

The collection tube 22 may be connected to an air sampler (not shown),to collect the PM in the major stream. The collection apertures 24 canalso be connected to an air sampler, to collect the PM in the minorstream. Alternatively, the collection apertures 24 can be connected toone or more vacuum pumps, which can simply exhaust the minor stream. Theair samplers/pumps can be used to apply the partial vacuum to thehousing 20. A single pump and corresponding flow controllers can be usedto create both the minor and major flow streams.

Efficient separation of the particles can occur, when a ratio of thediameter Dj of the cylindrical portions 32B to the diameter Dc of theseparation apertures 42 ranges from about 1 to 1.5 and in particular, isabout 1.33, for example. The lengths of the conical portions 32A and thecylindrical portions 32B (taken in a thickness direction of the firstplate 30) can be approximately equal, and can also be approximatelyequal to the diameter Dj. The distance J, between the accelerationnozzles 32 and the separation apertures 42, can be in a range of fromabout 1 to 1.5 Dj, and in particular, can be 1.25Dj, for example. Thehousing 20 may have a diameter of about 25 cm, for example. However, thesize of the inlet 10 can be varied, according an intended applicationthereof.

The airflow through the acceleration nozzles 32 may be laminar orturbulent, depending on the number of nozzles (N) and the total flowrate (O). Efficient size-fractionation of particles by the inlet 10 isnot affected by the occurrence of turbulent air flow through theacceleration nozzles 32.

A multi-filter chemical speciation sampler 60, according to aspects ofthe present teachings, is shown in FIG. 4. The sampler 60 includes: aframe 70; an inlet 11 disposed in the frame 70; a virtual impactionseparator 80 connected to the inlet 11; a first separation assembly 111attached to a first outlet of the separator 80; and a second separationassembly 113 attached to a second outlet the separator 80.

The first separation assembly 111 includes: a plenum 90 attached to thefirst outlet of the separator 80; a drum 100 attached to a downstreamend the plenum 90; filters 120A, 120B disposed in the drum 100. Whilenot required in all aspects, the shown first separation assembly 111also includes a flow splitter 127 attached to downstream ends of thefilters 120A, 120B; and a vacuum pump 125 attached to the flow splitter127.

The second separation assembly 113 includes a flow splitter 110 attachedto the second outlet of the separator 80 and filters 122A, 122B attachedto the flow splitter 110. Although not shown, the second separationassembly 113 may also include one or more vacuum pumps and a flowcontroller, which are attached to the filters 122A, 122B, as shown forthe first separation assembly 113.

As recited above, ambient air is drawn into the inlet 11 for PMfractionation. The PM having an AD of less than about 10 μm, forexample, flows from the inlet 11 into the separator 80. According tosome embodiments, the inlet 11 may be the inlet 10, or may be anysuitable fractionation device having an appropriate particle size cutpoint. For example, the inlet 11 may be a real impaction inlet, with orwithout Federal Reference Method (FRM) designation.

The separator 80 can be a virtual impaction separating device asdescribed in U.S. Pat. No. 7,325,465, the disclosure of which isincorporated herein, by reference. The separator 80 receives the PMhaving an AD of less than about 10 μm from the inlet 11. The separator80 then fractionates the PM into course and fine fractions. Typically,the fine fraction includes PM having an AD of less than about 2.5 μm,and the course fraction includes PM having an AD of between about 2.5 μmand 10 μm. However, according to various aspects, the particle sizes ofthe course and fine fractions may be changed.

The flow split between the fine and coarse fractions can range frombetween 2% to 10%. In other words, between about 90% and 98% of airflowis directed to the plenum 90, with a corresponding amount of airflow(i.e., 10% to 2%) being directed to the flow splitter 110. Lower flowsplits to the coarse fraction minimize the amount of fine PM collectedwith the coarse PM. This concentration value is corrected based on theconcentration of particles observed in the fine fraction. For example,if the flow split is 10%, then 10% of the fine concentration value canbe subtracted from the coarse fraction.

The course fraction exits the bottom of the separator 80 and is drawninto the plenum 90. The plenum 90 is generally a conical tube. Ends ofthe plenum 90 can be configured to mate with the separator 80 and thedrum 100, and thereby form airtight seals. According to some aspects,tri-clamps or the like can be used to connect the plenum 90. The coursefraction is drawn through the plenum 90 and into the drum 100. Due tothe shape of the plenum 90, the particles of the course fraction arespread evenly in the space above the filters 120A, 120B, such thathomogenous deposits of the coarse PM are collected on the filters 120A,120B.

FIG. 5A illustrates a side view of a main body 101 of the drum 100, andFIG. 5B illustrates a perspective view of a bottom plate 104 of the drum100. Referring to FIG. 5A, the main body 101 is generally cylindrical.Upstream and downstream edges 103, 105 of the main body 101 are beveled,so as to respectively form an airtight seal with the plenum 90 and thebottom plate 104.

Referring to FIG. 5B, the bottom plate 104 includes a plurality ofapertures 108 and a positioning screw 109. The bottom plate 104 has abeveled edge 106, which corresponds to the downstream edge 105 of themain body 104.

Referring to FIGS. 4, 5A, and 5B, the filters 120A, 120B are housed inthe main body 101 and face the plenum 90. In particular, the filters120A, 120B may include, for example, a 102 mm filter 120A and three 47mm filters 120B. However the present teachings are not limited to anyparticular arrangement, number, or type of filter. The filters 120A,120B are seated in corresponding ones of the apertures 108 formed in thebottom plate 104. The apertures 108 may be designed to form an airtightseal with the corresponding filters 120A, 120B.

Downstream ends of the filters 120A, 120B are connected to the vacuumpump 125, which draws the coarse fraction though the filters 120A, 120B,to collect the coarse fraction. In some aspects, each of the filters120A, 120B can each be connected to a separate pump. In other aspects,the flow controller 127 is disposed between the pump 125 and the filters120A, 120B. The flow controller 127 can be, for example, a volumetric ormass flow controller. In particular, the flow controller 127 may be aflow splitter 127 to direct appropriate flows through each of thefilters 120A, 120B.

While not required in all aspects, the shown sampler 60 includes a guidemember 200 that is rotatably attached to the frame 70. The screw 109 isrotatably seated in the guide member 200, such that the bottom plate 104can be moved with respect to the main body 101. The guide member 200 maybe rotated, such that the bottom plate 104 can be moved out of the frame70, to allow for easy access to the filters 120A, 120B.

FIG. 6 illustrates a perspective view of the flow splitter 110.Referring FIGS. 4 and 6, the fine fraction exits the separator 80 and isdrawn into the flow splitter 110. The flow splitter 110 includes acentral aperture 112 and peripheral apertures 114. The fine fraction isdivided between the apertures 112, 114 and then carried to filters. Inparticular, the central aperture 112 is connected to an 8×10 inch filter122A, for example, and the peripheral apertures 114 are each connectedto separate circular 47 mm diameter filters 122B, for example. The flowsplit between the central aperture 112 and the peripheral apertures 114can be set according to the types of filters attached thereto, asrecited above. The filters 122A, 122B are then connected to one or morevacuum pumps (not shown), and optionally a flow controller, in a mannersimilar to the filters 120A, 120B. The flow splitter 110 may be anABC3000 flow splitter (URG, Durham, N.C.)

The various filters described herein can be any suitable type of filter,such as, filters made of Teflon, quartz-fiber, nylon, nucleopore,cellulose, polyurethane, or the like. In some aspects, different typesof filters are simultaneously employed to collect the coarse and/or finefractions as desired, to achieve suitable chemical analysis of thecollected PM and thus, obtain a nearly complete mass balance of thecollected PM. Herein, the mass balance refers to a comparison betweenthe sum of the PM species measured, to the total mass measured of thecollected PM. The sampler 60 can include a denuder on any or all of theflow paths to the various filters. The filters can be housed in filtercartridges. The filter cartridges may each include multiple filters inseries as needed, to obtain chemical components of the collected PM. Thesampler 60 may also include one or more bypass lines 129, to control theair flow through the filters. The bypass line 129 may extend between theplenum 90 or base plate 104, and the flow splitter 127 or the pump 125.

Because the drum 100 houses multiple filters 120A, 120B, the coarsefraction in the plenum 90 can be divided amongst a number of separatestreams and drawn into the corresponding filters 120A, 120B thatcorrespond thereto. The flow splitter 127 can be used to obtain anynumber of desired flow splits.

The shown sampler 60 is designed based on air flows of, for example, 400liters per minute (Lpm) and 1000 Lpm through the inlet 10, although anyflow rate is possible. At 400 Lpm, 20.1 Lpm (5%) of the air flow isdiverted by the separator 80 into the plenum 90. With three of thefilters 120A, 120B (a three-way split), 6.7 Lpm pass through each filter120A, 120B. A 20.1 Lpm flow split is also acceptable at 350 Lpm (flowsplit is 5.8%). The flow rate of 6.7 Lpm matches the current widely usedMetOne PM2.5 chemical speciation sampler. At 1000 Lpm, 50.1 LPM allowsfor a 3-way flow split of 16.7 Lpm. This flow rate matches the FederalReference Methods for coarse (PM10 PM2.5) and fine (PM2.5) fractions,the former by the difference between PM10 and PM2.5. At 10% flow splitfor the coarse fractions at 1000 Lpm, the additional fraction can becollected by a fourth filter, at a higher flow rate (5% of the totalflow, e.g., 49.9 Lpm) and used, for example, for ultra-trace organicspecies or trace metals analyses or used by health effects researchersfor biological analysis or toxicological animal testing.

EXAMPLES

The Table 1 includes exemplary design parameters for inlets of Examples1-3, according to aspects of the present teachings. Example 2 includedan inlet having 16 acceleration nozzle/separation aperture pairs, asshown in FIG. 1, and Examples 1, and 3 included inlets respectivelyincluding 8 and 36 acceleration nozzle/separation aperture pairs. Theinlets of Examples 1-3 were connected to high volume air samplers. Aflow rate of 1190 l/min was 1.05 times the actual flow rate of thesamplers, to account for the 5% lost to the particle flow throughcollection apertures thereof.

TABLE I Design Parameters for Virtual Impactor Inlets (10 μm AD cutpoint) Examples 1 2 3 Nozzle Number 8 16 36 D_(j) (cm) 1.861 1.477 1.127D_(c) (cm) 2.481 1.969 1.502 Re_(j) 11,250 7085 4127

As shown in Table 1, the Dj values were calculated using Ranz and Wongclassical impaction theory of (1952) and assumed a ψ₅₀ value of 0.15 forthe impaction parameter (ψ₅₀ is proportional to QD_(P50)/ND³ _(j)), forthe most commonly employed flow rate of a high volume sampler (1130l/min or 40 cfm), and a D_(P50) of 10 μm AD. Small adjustments can bemade to D_(j) and D_(c) (e.g., a smaller value for D_(j) will yield alower cut point for the same N and Q), to obtain a desired sizeseparation. Because ψ₅₀ varies for different design parameter sets, alaboratory calibration employing monodisperse and/or polydisperseaerosols may be used to determine the actual cut point and efficiency offractionation.

The suggested existence of laminar or turbulent flow through theacceleration nozzles was determined by calculating the Reynolds numberRe_(j) (Re_(j)=140.7Q/D_(j) when Q is given in l/min and D_(j) in cm).Reynolds numbers below 2000 indicate laminar flow, whereas Reynoldsnumbers greater than 5000 usually indicate turbulent flow. Round nozzleturbulent flow impactors have been shown to work efficiently (Solomon etal. 1983).

Table I lists the Reynolds number values as calculated for the flow(Q/N) through the acceleration nozzle(s). As can be seen, Examples 1-3operated under turbulent flow.

Although a few exemplary embodiments of the present teachings have beenshown and described, it would be appreciated by those skilled in the artthat changes may be made in these exemplary embodiments, withoutdeparting from the principles and spirit of the present teachings, thescope of which is defined in the claims and their equivalents.

1. A virtual impaction particle separation inlet to fractionate airborneparticulate matter (PM), the inlet comprising: a housing having abottom, a collection tube that extends through the bottom, andcollection apertures formed in the bottom, arranged around thecollection tube; a first plate disposed on top of the housing, havingacceleration nozzles disposed around the perimeter of the first plate;and a second plate disposed in the housing below the first plate, havinga central aperture disposed on an upstream end the collection tube, andseparation apertures disposed around the central aperture and alignedwith corresponding ones of the acceleration nozzles, wherein, when apartial vacuum is applied to the housing, ambient air including the PMflows through the acceleration nozzles and is divided into a majorstream that flows through the central aperture and into the collectiontube, and a minor stream that flow through the separation apertures andinto the collection apertures, and the majority of the PM in the majorstream have a smaller aerodynamic diameter (AD) than that of themajority of the PM in the minor stream.
 2. The inlet of claim 1,wherein: each of the acceleration nozzles has a conical portion and acylindrical portion that extends from the conical portion; and edges ofadjacent ones of the conical portions form knife edges on an upstreamsurface of the first plate.
 3. The inlet of claim 1, wherein themajority of the PM in the major stream has an AD of less than about 10μm, and the majority of the PM in the minor stream has an AD of morethan about 10 μm.
 4. The inlet of claim 1, further comprising aprecipitation guard attached to the housing, to prevent precipitationfrom entering the acceleration nozzles.
 5. The inlet of claim 4, whereinthe precipitation guard comprises: first and second shields that arespaced apart, so as allow ambient air to flow therebetween and enter theacceleration nozzles; and a screen disposed between the first and secondshields.
 6. The inlet of claim 1, wherein a ratio of the diameter of theseparation apertures to a minimum diameter of the acceleration nozzlesranges from about 1 to 1.5.
 7. The inlet of claim 1, wherein: the majorstream comprises at least about 90% of total airflow through the inlet;and the minor stream comprises the remaining portion of the totalairflow through the inlet.
 8. The inlet of claim 1, wherein theacceleration nozzles produce a laminar or turbulent air flow.
 9. Theinlet of claim 1, wherein the inlet comprises between 4 and 36 pairs ofthe acceleration nozzles and separation apertures.
 10. The inlet ofclaim 1, wherein the distance between the acceleration nozzles and thecorresponding inlets ranges from about 1 to 1.5 times the diameter ofthe conical portions.
 11. A multi-filter chemical speciation sampler,comprising: an inlet to separate particulate matter (PM) having anaerodynamic diameter (AD) of less than a predetermined size from ambientair; a virtual impaction separator connected to the inlet, tofractionate the PM received through the inlet, into a course fractionand a fine fraction; a first separation assembly to divide the coursefraction into coarse aliquots, comprising first filters to collect theeach of the coarse aliquots; and a second separation assembly to dividethe fine fraction into fine aliquots, comprising second filters tocollect each of the fine aliquots.
 12. The particle sampler of claim 11,wherein the inlet comprises: a real impaction inlet; or a virtualimpaction inlet comprising: a housing having a bottom, a collection tubethat extends through the bottom, and collection apertures formed in thebottom, arranged around the collection tube; a first plate disposed ontop of the housing, having acceleration nozzles disposed around theperimeter of the first plate; and a second plate disposed in the housingbelow the first plate, having a central aperture disposed on an upstreamend the collection tube, and separation apertures disposed around thecentral aperture and aligned with corresponding ones of the accelerationnozzles.
 13. The particle sampler of claim 11, wherein the firstseparation assembly comprises: a plenum to collect the course fractionfrom the separator; a drum to house the first filters, to receive thecourse fraction from the plenum, and to divide the course stream intothe course aliquots, such that the first filters can be used todetermine a generally complete mass balance of the collected coarsefraction.
 14. The particle sampler of claim 13, wherein the plenum isconical and disperses the coarse fraction above an upstream end of thedrum, such that the coarse aliquots are homogenously collected on thefirst filters.
 15. The particle sampler of claim 13, wherein the drumcomprises: a main body; and a bottom plate disposed on a downstream endof the main body and having apertures, wherein the first filters areseated in the apertures of the bottom plate and face the plenum.
 16. Theparticle sampler of claim 11, wherein: the majority of the PM in thecourse fraction has an AD of from about 2.5 μm to about 10 μm; and themajority of the PM in the fine fraction has an AD of less than about 2.5μm.
 17. The particle sampler of claim 11, wherein the first separationassembly comprises: a flow splitter to divide the fine stream into finesub-streams, wherein the second filters collect the PM fromcorresponding ones of the fine sub-streams.
 18. The particle sampler ofclaim 17, wherein the predetermined size of the AD is less than about 10μm.
 19. The particle sampler of claim 11, further comprising a bypass tocontrol airflow to the first or second filters.
 20. The particle samplerof claim 11, wherein the first filters comprise at least 2 differenttypes of filters.